Tuesday, April 21, 2020
Learning Theories free essay sample
This chapter takes a brief look at the two major categories of learning theories (behaviorism and constructivism), the major theorists within those categories, and the implications of those theories for the use of multimedia and communications and information technology for learning purposes. A separate section within the chapter provides a brief overview of learning based upon neuroscience and recent discoveries about the functioning of the brain. A series of links are provided to further resources on learning theory, neuroscience, and the brain. pic] Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the Way We Learn We have all experienced a learning moment when we were so focussed or engulfed in the learning, that everything else did not matter. Candidly, the raison detre or motivation for our focus may have been that we had a boss or teacher breathing down our neck or an impending exam was to quantify our level of knowledge or intelligence or a particular moment necessitated that a skill be learned very quickly. We will write a custom essay sample on Learning Theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Regardless of the motivating factors for this moment of focussed learning, the experience is what psychologists Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Ellen Langer label in their respective theories, as moments of optimum flow or mindfulness. According to psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when: Alientation gives way to involvement, enjoyment replaces boredom, helplessness turns into a feeling of control, and psychic energy works to reinforce the sense of self, instead of being lost in the service of external goals. (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9) Replicating such moments of optimum flow is the job of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be school, the workplace in job training, or the military, etc. Moreover, certain learning theorists are advocating the greater use of technology, namely computers, in learning situations because they see enormous potential of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. Learning is a personal act. We each plac e our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in effect have our own learning style. Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences which acknowledges learning as an holistic experience is, at present, one of the most well known descriptors of human cognitive profiles. The act of learning is paradoxical in nature. It can at times appear to be a very simple act. So simple, that we do not question its presence in how we go about our daily activities, for it is natural to our existence as learning organisms. Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learning process for granted. It is only then that our metacognition or awareness of how we learn is heightened. Learning is taken for granted as a natural process. As simple a process it may seem, the root of understanding how we learn is not as straight forward. The existence of numerous definitions and theories of learning attest to the complexity of this process. A random sampling of any educational psychology text will illustrate the variance in views to what exactly is learning and how we do learn. In Educational Psychology: An Introduction, for example, the authors write, Learning implies a change in the individual as a result of some intervention. It may be viewed as an outcome or as a process. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 211) While this definition reflects a behaviorist view of learning, for it equates learning as an outcome, it is a starting point for the authors to expand their description of learning into many other realms, namely the different theories of learning. They in effect, devote a whole chapter of their text just to describe the many ways of defining learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to evaluate the aforementioned definition of learning and to equate it with a specific theory, it is important to recognize that intervention in the learning process can imply many different things. The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining factors of a learning theory. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you will see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover new ways of viewing human cognition. The mechanistic model of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical-computational model favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists (McLellan, 1996, p. 6). Don Tapscott, in his book Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning. According to Tapscott, a transformation in learning is taking place from what he labels broadcast learning to interactive learning. No longer are todays generation of learners satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional teaching process, rather, they want to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The net generation children using GlobaLearn [a web site], are beginning to process information and learn differently than the boomers before them. New media tools offer great promise for a new model of learning one based on discovery and participation. (Tapscott, 1998, p. 127) Tapscotts thesis that the technological revolution is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to examine the use of computer technology as learning devices. Such rapid social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in essence to the technological revolution, begs the question based on learning theory, why does the use of computers as a learning tool make sense? This chapter will answer this question by profiling the many learning theories. [pic] The Spectrum of Learning Theories As a review of the literature of learning theories will illustrate there are many labels being used to describe the many theories. Moreover, there are many theorists associated with each approach. A categorization of these labels and theorists will help in understanding these fundamental theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn. A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to critically examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of: †¢ the associated names of the theory †¢ a description of the theory †¢ theorists associated with the theory †¢ hyperlinks on the World Wide Web Diagram #1: The two extremes Behaviorism                                                        Constructivism The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by respectively, the Behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning. As theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a context to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum. [pic] Behaviorism The Associated Names of this Theory: Behaviorism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed instruction. As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning. Theorists associated with Behaviorism: J. B Watson E. L Thorndike B. F Skinner A Description of Behaviorism: The concern or emphasis of Behaviorism is observable indicators that learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of the mind. Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would normally be associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The supporting example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlovs dog. The focus of Pavlovs experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise). B. F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 9) In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote: The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p. 4) Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior. (Skinner, 1968, p. 10) Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we have many behaviorist artifacts in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviorists have had on learning. The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of contingencies, is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of learning. The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into conditions of learning (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, C. A. I. , or computer-assisted instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the drill and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. Based on the response a reward may be provided. The contingencies of learning are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning. Educators have espoused CAI as an effective teaching approach because it allows for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular needs. Hyperlinks to Behaviorist Web Pages: http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/theory. html http://tecfa. unige. ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn. fm. html#REF13085 http://www. sil. org/lingualinks/library/literacy/fre371/vao443/TKS2569/tks347/tks734/ http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learnterm_b. html [pic] Constructivism: The Associated Names of this Theory: Constructivsm is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learners ability to mentally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The term constructivsm is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivsm. Theorists associated with Constuctivism: John Dewey Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Seymour Papert Mitchell Resnick A Description of Constructivism: The merits of Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing North American population over the past six decades. Behavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching. Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning moment. The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these basic ideas be used to design instruction ? How can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions ? (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) Gagne and Briggs principles of instructional design broke down the teaching process into a systematic process of nine steps. It is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of another view of the way humans learn. Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour Papert. Constructivist learning theory sought to improve on what Behaviorist learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviorism as being too teacher centered and directed. Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was void of meaningful learning. They also saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The final critique of Behaviorist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning. Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The extent to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of cognitive development. His four stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. Seymour Papert, psychologist and contemporary critique of Behaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Childrens Machine: Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p. 42) As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences. According to Papert: It [constuctivsm] does not call in question the value of instruction as such. That would be silly: Even the statement (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, but a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learning for the least teaching. Of course, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the quantity of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels an African proverb: If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert, 1993, p. 139) Paperts desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process. According to Papert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of Papert and others who share the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscotts perspective, Paperts desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shift to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions. Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today: †¢ From linear to hypermedia. †¢ From instruction to construction and discovery. †¢ From teacher-centered to learner-centered education. †¢ From absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn. †¢ From school to lifelong learning. †¢ From one-size-fits-all to customized learning. †¢ From learning as torture as learning as fun. †¢ From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator. Hyperlinks to Constructivist Web Pages: http://www. tcimet. net/mmclass/summer/CHPTales. tm http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/construct. html http://www. gwu. edu/~tip/bruner. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/people/seymour. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/home_alt. html http://lynx. dac. neu. edu/home/httpd/t/tjohnson/papert%20history. htm [pic] Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum The two extremes of the spectrum have been outlined (refer to diagram #2). Inherent within each of these two extremes are related theories. Diagram #2: (Spectrum Summary) Behaviorism                                                                                 Constructivism Directed Instruction                                                                            Non-directed Instruction Objectivist                                                                                    Constructivist Teacher-centered                                                                            Learner-centered Behavioral observations                                                                    Cognitive operations Focus on the individual                                                                    Group work is emphasized More focussed on one approach                                                    More holistic in approach Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning. Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are: Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and Brain-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian Diamond and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik). Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store memory. As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory. Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development. The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the zone of proximal development. The job of educators was to identify this zone and to find out where the child was situated in this zone and build upon their specific level through a scaffolding process. Building from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. Such anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. Computer technology is viewed by Seymour Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences. The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave: Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His classification of human intellectual ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans. Before moving on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories. http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learning. html [pic] Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Human intelligence should not be equated solely with linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human intelligences, Gardner, a Harvard professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may possess. His list includes: †¢ Linguistic intelligence †¢ Logical-mathematical intelligence †¢ Spatial intelligence †¢ Musical intelligence †¢ Bodily-kinesthetic †¢ Interpersonal intelligence †¢ Intrapersonal intelligence Gardner is working on more intelligences that qualify as cognitive processes: Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional concept(Gardner, 1993, p. 15) Gardners fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was started with an investigation of people who had experienced brain damage of some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor-sensory, were eliminated from the individuals repertoire despite having endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence of humans. Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardners theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of Gardners theory. Hyperlinks to Multiple Intelligences Web Pages: http://www. athena. ivv. nasa. gov/curric/weather/adptcty/multint. html [pic] Learning Theories and the Brain What is Learning? Learning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode such data as memories within the neural structures of our brain, and retrieve those memories for subsequent use. The variety of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as: how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to grandmother’s house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for Beethoven’s Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says The cat is on the mat. All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to apply that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Our ability to describe and understand the basic processes by which our brain learns has bee n enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long-term studies in human and animal populations. Of particular benefit has been the development of brain-imaging techniques that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the performance of a variety of tasks. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and similar technologies have allowed researchers to map neural activity during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long-term memory. Researchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. Such research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro-physiological models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need prescriptive theories of how to maximize the efficiency and capacity of human learning. To some extent all learning theories are prescriptive and seek to minimize the time required to transfer information into memory and maximize the efficiency of retrieving that information. Our current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary function of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for maximum learning efficiency. In particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to maximize the impact of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. Learning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal classroom within the context of institutionalized public education. Such environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology continues to penetrate Western society. We should also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techniques are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developing and maturing. [pic] The Brain The three-pound universe that is our brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons and the associated structures that organize, nourish, and protect their functioning. Each neuron may have between 5,000 and 50,000 connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the storage of enormous amounts of information. It is important to remember that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons throughout adult life. [pic] Brain Structures The diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The brain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of body systems. The cerebellum is involved in the performance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch-typing, and other physical skills that can become part of automatic procedural memory). The limbic system is responsible for the processing of short-term memory into long-term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analyzed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated. Information is received from the major sensory organs of the body: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin; and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. Long-term memories are generated through the growth and spread of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (Sylwester, 1995, pp. 89-90). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in decision making and conscious thought. To some extent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and cultural evolution. Our brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential threat situations, making a quick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. In high-threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost exclusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively unimportant systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight-or-flight response. Low-threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analyze such input for future use. Thus a large looming shadow in the cave mouth tends to generate fear, prompting the body to shut down digestion, pump more adrenaline, and prepare the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral cortex looks for places to hide or make a stand. Strong negative emotion tends to evoke the fight-or-flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high-level cognition. A premium should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions. At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short-term into long-term memory. Clearly a balance must be struck between too much and too little stimulation in learning situations. Some stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are required to learn; on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a negative context) is liable to create anger or fear as an emotional response, either of which can serve to reduce the amount of learning carried out within the environment. It appears that the limbic system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long-term memories. Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long-term storage and subsequent retrieval of those memories. Group activities, co-operative learning, role-playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional context for learning. Retrieval of long-term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some extent our growing knowledge about the organization of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be recalled than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote. Because the process of creating connections between ideas and memories is essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is already easily retrieved from long-term memory. Such cognitive tools as narration, story-telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories. [pic] Implications for Learning Theory If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments. These principles include: 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct ones own meaning, not to have the right answers by repeating someone elses meaning. Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning. (On Purpose Associates, 1998b) Such learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain-based learning. That is, they should employ the three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning: orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that fully immerse students in a learning experience; relaxed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment; and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it (On Purpose Associates, 1998a). Learning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organized around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the exploration of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners. [pic] Implications for Multimedia How should we then use multimedia presentations of information to effectively learn in the context of current brain-based learning theory? The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantages in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process. Multimedia, at its best, allows us to bring the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video. Such connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with additional connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to experience information through multiple modes of presentation. Such multi-modal learning should help to build connections within the learner’s brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learner’s brain. Contemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more freedom for the learner to undertake self-directed exploration of the material. Such self-directed learning is likely to be more meaningful and more connected to existing knowledge structures within the learner’s brain. Therefore, we should see advantages for learning programs that include multimedia presentations. Learners should also gain from the possibility of self-paced instruction based upon contemporary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within existing knowledge structures. Designers of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners. Although current multimedia technology allows excellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile experience ? multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. Even the best multimedia programs cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide? we have yet to incorporate smell or taste into such presentations, and tactile sensations are still limited. More importantly, there is a clear danger that multimedia programs may be used to substitute for interaction with other learners. We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting-edge visual and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the tendency to substitute passive learning for active learning. Multimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. Presentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enough; learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and integrate new knowledge into the dense web of neural connections that is mind and memory. [pic]
Monday, March 16, 2020
Harry Potter and Friendship essays
Harry Potter and Friendship essays Harry Potter's first three years at Hogwarts were certainly filled with danger and excitement, but that was nothing compared to the fourth! For an exciting difference, instead of playing Quidditch, two students from Hogwarts, one being Harry, competed against two other schools in The Triwizard Tournament. Not to mention that Harry came face to face with his worst enemy and barely walked away from the encounter. There were also new friendships formed, as well as old friendships maimed. Without friendship, Harry Potter could not have survived his fourth year at Hogwarts. Sometimes someone who is considered a friend could actually be an enemy. In Harry's case, Mad-Eye Moody was an enemy in disguise. Mad-Eye Moody was hired as the new Defense Against the Dark Arts teacher. He befriended Harry and aided him in succeeding his tasks for the Triwizard Tournament. Later Harry had discovered that Mad-Eye Moody was actually Barty Crouch, who is a follower of Voldemort. He only assisted Harry at winning so that he would be murdered by Voldemort. "'Who put your name in the Goblet of Fire, under the name of a different school? I did. Who frightened off every person I thought might try to hurt you or prevent you from winning the tournament? I did. Who nudged Hagrid into showing you the dragons? I did. Who helped you see the only way you could beat the dragons? I did.' said Mad-Eye Moody"(Rowling 676). Strong friendships can also be ruined by jealousy. Because Harry is always in the spotlight, Ron never gets his moment to shine. He feels left out and envies how his best friend is always in the paper, and how Harry Potter is a household name. "'Look,' said Hermione patiently, 'it's always you who gets all the attention, you know it is. I know it's not your fault,' she added quickly, seeing Harry open his mouth furiously. 'I know you don't ask for it... but well you know, Ron's got all those brothers to compete against at home, and you're ...
Saturday, February 29, 2020
Billie Holiday and her influence on Jazz Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Billie Holiday and her influence on Jazz - Essay Example The way she sang was completely new to the genre of Jazz at that time and her contributions are still followed by Jazz musicians in today’s time period. There are several legends and myths regarding the personal as well as her life as a musician. Even though she was surrounded with several scandals and was in trouble for a major portion of her life, he life experiences became the real inspiration of her music. The huge amount of contributions she made to Jazz music can never be forgotten. She can easily be said to have been the one who made major transformations to the way Jazz music was being practiced during her time. If a survey of modern Jazz history is conducted, the survey would prove that the Jazz music that is experienced in current times was her innovation. When she started practicing jazz music, there were hardly any jazz musicians who were personalizing their own tunes. There were only a few singers at her time who were singing different from rest of the singers. These singers were not a part of the Jazz music industry. These singers were representative of the Blues genre of music. One of these singers was Bessie Smith wh o along with another great Jazz singer and trumpeter named Louis Armstrong influenced Billie Holiday’s Jazz music (Henderson 295). During her early life she was singing most of the songs that were quite popular. She found this form of music quite monotonous and she started experimenting with her music. During her experiments she altered both the melody as well as the rhythm of the songs. To create her own music, she started phrasing music in relation to the beat and she even included different harmonies that were played by some of her personal favorite horn players including Louis Armstrong (Henderson 295). This mixture of music and experimentation resulted in the development of music that was regarded as magical. Current Jazz musicians use their own vocals as instruments for songs.
Wednesday, February 12, 2020
An historical account of an ancient Greek city-state or colony Assignment
An historical account of an ancient Greek city-state or colony - Assignment Example The author draws heavily from the primary sources of information such as the Herodotus, Plutarch, and the Thucydides to explain the nature and structures of various Greek land engagements in the 500 century B.C. In essence, the author presents a formative domain in understanding the history of Western warfare. The map below is a representation of ancient Greece city states that had come into existence in the 500 century B.C. the map clearly shows the settlements in the ancient Greece and the surrounding natural features such as the seas and other natural landscapes. From the map, it can be observed that the Athens City is among the notable City-States that existed in the early 500 century B.C. and was surrounded by rival city states such as Thebes and Corinth. The author gives a critical overview of the birth of the Athens City State and cultural diversity. The author notes that Athens is located at latitude 37 58’ 20†N and longitude 23 43’ 9†on the Attica plains. At the heart of the Attica plain, there exists a range of hills (presently referred to as Tourko Vouni) that spread from the northeast to the south. The hills separate the Kephisos and ILissos valleys that are boards a spur to the south. The spur can be termed as the link to the Athens City states. It is worth noting that the highest point of Athens is known as Acropolis. From the book, it can be identified that Athens has experienced dramatic transformations since its existence. Currently, the city is occupied by people from diverse origins in terms of race, ethnic background and religious affiliations. As a result of the settlement of people from diverse origins, the city is characterized by a rich a dynamic culture. Different people have different cultural construction and, therefore, meeting of residents in a common place leads to cultural
Friday, January 31, 2020
Case study- Netflix 2012 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
Case study- Netflix 2012 - Essay Example Substitute products have a very strong influence over the organization because firms in other industries are producing substitutes to what Netflix is offering. These products are also comparatively priced to attract more customers. Bargaining power of suppliers is strong because there are very few content and studio providers available in the industry. Furthermore, the suppliers are significantly differentiated and the overall procedure of contracts is long-term and expensive. It is now easier for few firms to enter in to the market primarily because demand is constantly increasing and there are very low barriers for entrance, for instance, unrestricted regulatory policies, less capital requirements, low degrees of customer loyalty and brand preferences etc. (Peteraf). Based on the above analysis it can be summarized that movie rental industry is significantly attractive to make huge profits. This is firstly because customers are increasing rapidly and the new technological developments are encouraging them towards live streaming and DVDs. Although this is highly competitive market but if the organization applies right strategies then profits can be increased. The overall concept of movie rentals has drastically changed with the development of internet technology. Previously we used to get our movies from physical stores but today millions of people subscribe to websites such as Netflix in order to rent DVDs and watch movies. Netflix has also given significant customer facilities. In the near future customers are expected to switch completely to live streaming and online video libraries while paying a small amount as rent. The long term growth rate of Movie Rental Industry: In the last two decades customers using online movie rental services have significantly increased which has actually influenced the long term growth rate of the entire industry. It is evident that young people specifically from 14-34 years of age are now
Thursday, January 23, 2020
Essay --
The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Untreated Male Negros made a distinct impact on the history of research. The study began in Mason County, Alabama in 1932 at the Tuskegee Institute. The goal was to learn about syphilis, and how the disease progressed with an emphasis on uneducated and illiterate African American males (Tuskegee University, n.d). There were 600 participants involved; 399 with documented cases of syphilis, and 201 control group members without syphilis (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Researchers informed the participants that they had â€Å"bad blood,†never informing them that they were infected with syphilis (Tuskegee University, n.d). To encourage the men to participate in the study they provided free medical care, transportation, meals on the days they were being examined, and burial insurance (Tuskegee University, n.d). When the study began no reliable treatments were available. The study was based on the Oslo study, which stated that the current treatments of mercurial ointment were of no benefit, and that going untreated was more beneficial for the patient in the end (Brandt, 1978). Participants were given full physical exams, radiographs, and lumbar punctures that were conducted by the United States Public Health Services (Brandt, 1978). To guarantee that the men would show up for the lumbar puncture, researchers sent a letter to the participant titled, â€Å"Last Chance for Special Free Treatment,†(Brandt, 1978). Research continued, and in 1945, penicillin became approved to treat syphilis (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). The USPHS could have incorporated this treatment into their study, but chose to prevent the men from getting treatment, and never informed the p... ... & Human Services, 1979). After the conclusion of the Tuskegee Study, research found that many African American individuals were hesitant to participate in biomedical research (Davis, Green, & Katz, 2012). Researchers also found that African Americans have a distrust towards and suspicion of other health education programs such as the HIV/AIDS prevention programs. This is due to the similar methods used to select the participants in these programs as compared to the Tuskegee Study (Thomas & S.B., 1991). The Tuskegee Syphilis Study had and will continue to have lasting effects on the research community. Fortunately, some of these effects have improved how research is currently being conducted. To continue to build upon these improvements, researchers need to find ways to make all individuals comfortable and secure with the research in which they are participating.
Wednesday, January 15, 2020
American Freedom
The establishment of American society traces its roots back to the fifteenth century when Columbus discovered the existence of unknown land on this way to India. Since that time many people from all over the world have been taking refuge in the USA escaping from political or religious persecution. It has lead to outstanding ethnic diversity where human skin color varies from black, brown, and black to red and yellow. Depending on their background former â€Å"newcomers†who have become ancestors of new American generations are called â€Å"African Americans†, â€Å"Asian Americans†, â€Å"Russian Americans†, etc.Obviously, highly mentioned representatives of worlds cultures have their own political and religious preferences that have resulted in an increasing number of different confessions (Buddhists, Catholics, Muslims, etc. ) and parties (Democrats, Communists, Republicans, Socialists, etc. ). However, American nation is characterized by the following d istinct features common to overwhelming majority of people: †¢ Privacy and Individualism are the most important aspects of social independence all Americans value the most.Since their childhood Americans have been taught to consider themselves as independent part of a nation, social group, family, etc. They are used to make their own decisions but at the same time may seldom admit that there exist a number of external factors that greatly influence their decision making skills: stereotypes, mass media, social institutions, etc. They reject the idea of being similar to anybody else as they always strive to be different and unique.Newly arrived immigrants or those who accept Americans as guests from abroad may get a better picture of American culture and deeper insight into their beliefs and values only recognizing their true belief in freedom and self-reliance. The majority of Americans believe that in order to survive in modern world of commercialization and skim the cream off one should be free, independent, and self-reliant in terms of thoughts and decisions. This notion is also closely associated with how Americans treat their parents.More often than not, they show less intimate relationships with family members than other representatives of any other culture. They believe that biological/historical circumstances that brought together the parents and the child reach their purpose during child’s upbringing and adolescence after which the parent/child relationships decline and grow weaker. In some cases the connection may be totally lost especially taking into consideration the fact of vast territory of the country.Privacy is another part of American identity which is of great value when people want to psychologically â€Å"replenish†themselves or take their time to think about life situation, etc. †¢ How Americans perceive themselves? Typically, living in the USA its citizens never see themselves as representatives of their own count ry. Instead, they would rather compare themselves to people who are different from others regardless of the fact whether their â€Å"competitors†are of American or foreign origin.Many Americans make statements saying that their culture is not distinct enough to describe as they frequently visualize culture as a number of random traditions on the surface of society which can be distinct and common only in other cultures. Separate Americans sometimes believe that they established their priorities by themselves, rather than having had their thoughts and the considerations on which they are founded obtruded on them by their own culture. When asked to describe common features of American culture the majority of Americans fail to give a descent answer in some cases even rejecting the idea of â€Å"American culture†as a notion.Meanwhile, some Americans may gladly express their generalized their opinions about different groups and subcommunities within their own culture. Sou therners have stereotypical views (generalized, simplified notions) about Northerners, and the other way round. There exists a wide range of traditionally set views about people from the country, from big cities, from inland, from the coasts, from the Southeast, religious and ethnic groups and those who live in Oregon, Texas, Big Apple, California, Arizona, Florida, Hawaii, etc.†¢ Materialism and Achievement. â€Å"She is a hard-working person,†one American may express his/her opinion towards another person, or â€Å"he does his job well. †These phrases denote the usual American’s respect for people who approaches a task thoroughly and persistently, brining it to a victorious finale. In addition, these phrases also denote respect for achievers, those people who do their best and put much effort to achieve their goals. Foreigners frequently have a feeling that American people work harder than people from abroad expect them to work.(More likely these visito rs have been extremely subjective to American mass media production such as movies and TV programs which would typically show audience less working people but more of those who hang out and chill out driving cars and having dates). Regardless of the fact that some of the â€Å"Protestant†professional ethic may have lost some of its influence on Americans, there is still a strong faith that the perfect person must be a â€Å"hard worker. †A hard worker â€Å"gets everything right†in terms of his/her deadline, organizational skills, high standards of quality.Typically, Americans are keen on action. They really believe it is vital to devote much energy to their work or to other daily routine responsibilities. Moreover, they do believe they should be occupied most of the time. They are typically not satisfied, as representatives from many other cultures are, only to sit and have a talk with other people. They get bored and loose patience. They think they should b e occupied with something, or at least make plans and arrangements for future. †¢ Directness and Assertiveness.Americans, as has been indicated above, normally take themselves as sincere, open-minded, and straight in their relationships with other people. Americans will often talk openly and straightly to others about things they do not like. They will make attempts to do so in a style they call â€Å"constructive,†which means a style which the other person will not accept as offensive or improper. If they do not talk sincerely about what is on their thoughts, they will frequently communicate their reaction in nonverbal way (no words, only facial expressions, body positions, and gestures).They are not aware, unlike people from many Asian countries are, that they are supposed to mask or sometimes hide their emotional reaction. Their phrases, the tone of their voice, or their facial expressions will more often than not show when their feelings of anger, unhappiness, confu sion, or happiness. They think it is okay to show these feelings at least within limits. The majority of Asians feel embarrassed around Americans who are showing a strong emotional response to something.On the other hand, Latinos and Arabs are usually inclined to exhibit their emotions more candidly than Americans do, and to consider Americans as unemotional and cold. However, Americans are frequently less straight and open than they recognize it. There exist in fact many restrictions on their desire to discuss things honestly. Regardless of these limitations, Americans are usually more direct and sincere than people from many other cultures. They normally do not try to hide their emotions and are much less worried with â€Å"face†– avoiding awkwardness to themselves or others.To them, being â€Å"open†is typically more important than preserving harmony in interpersonal relationships. Americans use the words â€Å"assertive†or â€Å"hostile†to illustrate a person who is overly assertive in expressing thoughts or making requests. The line between acceptable assertiveness and unacceptable aggressiveness is difficult to draw. †¢ For American culture, time is a â€Å"resource,†like water or coal, which can be used properly or poorly. â€Å"Time is money. †â€Å"You only get so much time in life, so use it wisely.†The future will not be improved comparing to the past or the present, as Americans are used to take things, unless people use their time for constructive and promising activities. Therefore, Americans admire a â€Å"hard-working organized†people who write down things to be done and a schedule for doing them. The ideal person must be punctual (i. e. arrive at the scheduled time for event) and is considerate of other people’s time (that is, does not â€Å"waste people’s time†with conversation or other activity with no visible, beneficial outcome). References Br own, J. (2006). Americans. New York: Pocket Books.
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